Legal References & Bare Acts

Supreme law of India — 448 articles, 12 schedules, 106 amendments. Adopted on 26 November 1949 and enacted on 26 January 1950. Guarantees fundamental rights, directive principles, and a federal structure with a strong centre. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Chairman of the Drafting Committee, called it "a living document" designed to balance individual liberty with social justice.

Replaces the Indian Penal Code, 1860. India's new substantive criminal code with 358 sections. Introduces community service as punishment, addresses organised crime and terrorism in a dedicated chapter, enhances penalties for crimes against women and children, and replaces colonial-era language. Came into force on 1 July 2024.

Replaces the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973. Governs the entire criminal procedure from FIR to execution of sentence. Key reforms: mandatory CCTV in police stations, videography of crime scenes and searches, 90-day trial timeline for heinous crimes, Zero FIR concept codified, and bail provisions liberalised to reduce undertrial incarceration.

Replaces the Indian Evidence Act, 1872. Modernises evidence law — electronic records are now primary evidence, audio-visual statements admitted, joint trials codified, and provisions for expert evidence updated. Applies to both civil and criminal proceedings.

Foundational commercial law of India — governs formation, performance, and enforcement of contracts. Enacted during British rule, still in force with minimal amendments. Covers offer, acceptance, consideration, capacity, free consent, legality, performance, breach, and remedies. Special contracts (indemnity, guarantee, bailment, agency) are covered in later chapters.

Governs inter vivos (living person to living person) transfers of property in India — sale, mortgage, lease, exchange, gift, and actionable claims. Does not apply to testamentary transfers (those are under Succession Acts). Applies predominantly in states that have adopted it; some states have their own land laws.

Procedural law governing civil litigation in India — jurisdiction, pleadings, discovery, trial, judgment, execution of decrees, and appeals. Contains 158 sections and 51 Orders with detailed Rules. Supplemented by commercial courts legislation for fast-track commercial disputes.

Comprehensive corporate legislation replacing Companies Act, 1956. Introduced Independent Directors, mandatory CSR, class action suits, NCLT/NCLAT, National Financial Reporting Authority (NFRA), and investor protection mechanisms. Designed to align Indian corporate governance with global standards.

India's consolidated insolvency law — replaces 12 earlier laws. Creates a time-bound (180/270 days) Corporate Insolvency Resolution Process (CIRP) via NCLT. Established IRP, Resolution Professional, and Committee of Creditors framework. Also covers personal insolvency. India's World Bank ranking improved dramatically after IBC enactment.

Adopted by UN General Assembly on 10 December 1948 in the aftermath of World War II and the Holocaust. 30 articles declaring universal human rights. Not legally binding as a treaty but considered customary international law by many jurists. Forms the basis of all subsequent international human rights instruments. Eleanor Roosevelt chaired the drafting committee.

Legally binding UN treaty — 173 state parties. India ratified in 1979. Monitored by the UN Human Rights Committee which reviews state reports and hears individual communications (Optional Protocol). Together with ICESCR, forms the International Bill of Human Rights alongside UDHR.

Founding treaty of the ICC, adopted in Rome on 17 July 1998, in force since 2002. Defines the four core international crimes: genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression (added 2010). 124 state parties — India, USA, China, Russia are non-parties. The principle of complementarity ensures ICC only acts when national courts fail.

The "treaty on treaties" — codifies customary international law on how treaties are formed, interpreted, invalidated, and terminated. Adopted in 1969, in force 1980. Even states not party to it are bound by its provisions to the extent they reflect customary international law, as confirmed by the ICJ repeatedly.

Most important instrument in international commercial arbitration. 172 contracting states must recognise and enforce foreign arbitral awards as if they were domestic judgments, subject only to narrow grounds of refusal. Created the global infrastructure for cross-border commercial arbitration, making arbitration the preferred dispute resolution method in international trade.

"Constitution of the oceans" — adopted after 9 years of negotiations. Establishes the legal framework for all maritime activities. Defines territorial sea, contiguous zone, exclusive economic zone, continental shelf, high seas, and the Area (seabed beyond national jurisdiction). Creates ITLOS and CLCS for dispute resolution and boundary submissions.

Adopted at COP21 in Paris on 12 December 2015, under the UNFCCC. Replaces Kyoto Protocol's top-down binding targets with bottom-up nationally determined contributions (NDCs). Unprecedented consensus — 195 signatories. USA withdrew (2017), rejoined (2021). Creates transparency framework and loss-and-damage mechanism.

Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights — Annex 1C to the WTO Agreement. Sets minimum standards for IP protection and enforcement across all WTO member states. Contains TRIPS flexibilities allowing compulsory licensing for public health emergencies (Doha Declaration, 2001).

Four conventions (GC I-IV) and three additional protocols. Universal ratification — 196 states party to all four conventions; only treaty with universal ratification alongside the UN Charter. Constitutes the core of International Humanitarian Law (IHL). GC I: wounded soldiers, GC II: shipwrecked forces, GC III: prisoners of war, GC IV: civilians in occupied territory.

The Great Charter — sealed by King John at Runnymede on 15 June 1215 under pressure from barons. First constitutional document limiting royal power. Four clauses survive in English law. Foundation of habeas corpus, rule of law, and due process in common law. Influenced US Constitution, Canadian Charter, and virtually every common law constitution.

Incorporates the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) into UK domestic law. Public authorities must act compatibly with Convention rights. Courts must interpret legislation compatibly with the ECHR "so far as possible." When compatibility is impossible, courts issue a Declaration of Incompatibility — Parliament then decides whether to amend the law.

Primary UK company legislation — 1,300 sections, product of a 5-year Law Commission review. Codifies directors' duties for the first time (previously common law only). Introduces "enlightened shareholder value" framework — directors must consider long-term consequences, employees, suppliers, community, and environment alongside profit.

Drafted in Philadelphia in 1787, ratified 1788, in effect 1789. World's oldest written national constitution still in use. Seven articles establishing the federal government's structure. 27 Amendments — first 10 (Bill of Rights) ratified 1791. Established judicial review (Marbury v. Madison, 1803) and separation of powers with checks and balances.

EU's primary data protection law — in force from 25 May 2018. Direct effect in all 27 EU member states (no domestic implementation needed). Extraterritorial reach — applies to any organisation processing data of EU residents regardless of where the organisation is based. Has become a global standard — California CCPA, India DPDP Act, and many others are GDPR-inspired.

Landmark transparency legislation — empowers every citizen to request information from public authorities within 30 days (48 hours for life/liberty matters). Created Central Information Commission and State Information Commissions. Over 6 million RTI applications filed annually in India. Described as the most used transparency law in the world.

Anti-money laundering legislation passed to meet FATF obligations. Enforcement Directorate (ED) is the primary investigating agency. Contains provisions for attachment, adjudication, and confiscation of proceeds of crime. Reverse burden of proof — accused must prove the money is clean once ED establishes prima facie case. Extremely contested bail provisions.

Governs patent grants in India. Originally a process-patent-only regime (no product patents for food/medicine). Amended in 2005 to introduce product patents after TRIPS obligations. Contains the unique Section 3(d) anti-evergreening provision — one of the strongest in the world. Patent term: 20 years from filing.