संस्कृतम्(Sanskrit)

/dharma/

One of the four Purusharthas (goals of life). Dharma encompasses duty, righteousness, moral order, and the cosmic law that sustains the universe. It is foundational to Indian philosophy, governance, and the concept of natural law.

/arthashastra/

The ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy attributed to Kautilya (Chanakya), advisor to Chandragupta Maurya. It covers taxation, law, governance, diplomacy, and welfare of the state — foundational to Indian political thought.

/rajaniti/

The science and art of governance and diplomacy. In Sanskrit tradition, Rajniti encompasses Dandaniti (science of punishment/law), Arthaniti (economics), and Dharmaniti (ethical governance) as developed in texts like Manusmriti, Arthashastra, and Sukraniti.

/yoga/

An ancient system of physical, mental, and spiritual practices originating in India, first systematised by Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras. The eight-limbed path (Ashtanga) includes yamas, niyamas, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, and samadhi.

/veda/

The oldest scriptures of Hinduism, composed between 1500 and 1200 BCE. The four Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda) contain hymns, philosophical texts, and rituals, forming the foundation of Indian civilisation and philosophy.

/upanishad/

The philosophical texts forming the theoretical basis for Hinduism, composed between 800-500 BCE. There are 108 Upanishads, with the 10-13 principal ones (Mukhya Upanishads) being central to Vedantic philosophy. Core concepts include Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman (self).

/mahabharat/

One of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, attributed to the sage Vyasa. With over 100,000 verses, it is the world's longest epic poem. It includes the Bhagavad Gita as an important philosophical discourse, and explores dharma, righteousness, and human duty.

/ramayana/

An ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to Valmiki, narrating the life of Lord Rama. One of the most important literary works of Hinduism, it explores themes of duty, loyalty, devotion, and the triumph of good over evil. It has profoundly influenced art, culture, and governance across South and Southeast Asia.

/bhagavad-gita/

A 700-verse Hindu scripture that is part of the Mahabharata, containing a dialogue between Prince Arjuna and Lord Krishna on duty, righteousness, and devotion. It is one of the foundational texts of Hindu philosophy and addresses questions of ethics, purpose, and liberation.

/sanskriti/

The cultivation of mind and spirit; civilised way of life. The Sanskrit word Sanskriti literally means 'refined' or 'perfected,' and refers to the organised totality of customs, values, arts, and social institutions of a community.

/ahimsa/

The doctrine of not causing harm to any living being — central to Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. Gandhi transformed ahimsa into a political tool for mass non-violent resistance. It is one of the most influential Indian philosophical contributions to the world.

/satyam/

One of the most fundamental values in Indian philosophy — that which is real, eternal, and unchangeable. 'Satyameva Jayate' (Truth alone triumphs) from the Mundaka Upanishad is India's national motto, inscribed on the national emblem.

/karma/

The universal principle of cause and effect in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophies — that every action has moral consequences affecting the actor's future. Also refers to one's duty or work (as in karma yoga — the path of righteous action).

/moksha/

The ultimate goal in Hindu philosophy — liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth (samsara). One of the four Purusharthas, Moksha is attained through various paths: jnana (knowledge), bhakti (devotion), karma (righteous action), or raja (meditation).

/vidya/

True knowledge, as contrasted with avidya (ignorance). In Vedantic philosophy, Vidya refers not just to academic learning but to the higher knowledge of the self and Brahman. The guru-shishya parampara (teacher-student tradition) has preserved vidya for millennia.

/panchasheel/

Five principles governing India's foreign policy, adopted in the 1954 Sino-Indian Agreement: mutual respect for sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. They guide India's international relations.

/vasudhaiva kutumbakam/

A Sanskrit phrase from the Maha Upanishad meaning 'the world is one family.' It expresses the ideal of universal brotherhood and was the theme of India's G20 presidency in 2023, reflecting India's vision of an inclusive global community.

/janatantra/

A system of governance in which power is vested in the people (jana = people, tantra = system). Ancient India had forms of republican governance (Mahajanapadas) like the Vajji Confederacy (6th century BCE), which are considered precursors to modern democracy.

/purushartha/

The four aims of human life in Hindu philosophy: Dharma (righteousness/duty), Artha (wealth/prosperity), Kama (love/desire), and Moksha (liberation). Together they provide a comprehensive framework for leading a balanced and meaningful life.

/ganarajya/

A form of governance based on the consent of citizens, with no hereditary monarch. Ancient India had republican polities called ganas and sanghas. The Lichchhavi republic near Vaishali is considered one of the world's oldest republican states (6th century BCE).

/raaja/

A monarch or sovereign ruler. In Sanskrit political philosophy, a just king (dharmika raja) was expected to protect his subjects, follow Rajadharma (royal duty), collect taxes fairly, and maintain law and order as described in texts like the Arthashastra and Manusmriti.

/mantriparishad/

The advisory council of ministers helping the head of state govern. In ancient India, the Amatya Parishad (Council of Ministers) was a key component of governance. In modern India, the Council of Ministers headed by the PM exercises executive authority under Articles 74-75.

/nyaya/

One of the six classical schools of Hindu philosophy (Nyaya Darshana) focused on logic, epistemology, and metaphysics. Also means justice or righteousness in general usage. Nyaya philosophy established pramanas (sources of valid knowledge) that influenced Indian legal and logical thought.

/samskritam/

The ancient classical language of India, one of the oldest languages in the world. Sanskrit is the liturgical language of Hinduism and the scholarly language of Buddhism and Jainism. Recognized as one of India's 22 scheduled languages and as a Classical Language.

/shoonya/

The mathematical concept of zero, considered India's greatest contribution to mathematics. The Indian mathematician Brahmagupta (7th century CE) was the first to formally define zero and its mathematical operations, revolutionising arithmetic and enabling modern mathematics.

/ayurveda/

The traditional Indian system of medicine dating back over 5000 years, rooted in the Vedas. It focuses on balance of body, mind, and spirit using herbal remedies, diet, yoga, and lifestyle. The foundational texts are Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita.

/guru/

A spiritual guide or teacher in the Indian tradition, occupying a revered position in the Guru-Shishya (teacher-student) relationship. The Guru is considered the one who dispels darkness (gu = darkness, ru = remover). This tradition has preserved knowledge across generations.

/prakriti/

The natural world or primordial matter in Samkhya philosophy. In Indian philosophical tradition, Prakriti (matter) and Purusha (consciousness) are the two fundamental principles. In common usage, Prakriti means nature or environment.

/sarve bhavantu sukhinah/

A Sanskrit prayer meaning 'May all beings be happy, may all be free from illness, may all see what is auspicious, may none suffer.' It expresses the universal Indian ideal of well-being for all, reflecting the inclusive nature of Indian philosophical thought.

/takshashila/

An ancient centre of learning located in present-day Pakistan, considered one of the world's earliest universities (6th century BCE). Scholars like Chanakya (Kautilya) and Panini taught there. Students from across Asia came to study grammar, medicine, law, and statecraft.

/nalanda/

A great centre of Buddhist learning in ancient Bihar (5th century CE), considered the world's first residential university. At its peak, it housed 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers. It was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1193 CE. Nalanda University has been revived in modern Bihar.

/brahma/

The ultimate, transcendent reality in Hindu philosophy — the all-pervading essence of the universe. In Advaita Vedanta (Adi Shankaracharya), Brahman and Atman (individual self) are ultimately one. This concept underpins much of Indian philosophical and spiritual thought.

/panchatantra/

An ancient collection of interrelated animal fables in Sanskrit, attributed to Vishnu Sharma. Composed around 300 BCE, it was designed to teach practical wisdom and statecraft to young princes. It has been translated into over 50 languages and influenced Aesop's fables.

/kalidasa/

The greatest poet and playwright in Sanskrit literature, who flourished during the Gupta period (4th-5th century CE). His works include Shakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha, and Kumarasambhava. Goethe praised Shakuntalam as the greatest poem ever written.

/trimurti/

The Hindu trinity of Brahma (creator), Vishnu (preserver), and Shiva (destroyer) representing the three fundamental forces of creation, preservation, and dissolution in the cosmos. This concept represents the cyclical nature of existence in Hindu cosmology.

/ashrama/

The four stages of life in Hindu social philosophy: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (forest dweller/retired), and Sannyasa (renunciant). This system provided a framework for balanced spiritual and social development.

/satyagraha/

Literally 'holding firmly to truth' — Gandhi's philosophy of non-violent civil disobedience developed from Hindu, Jain, and Tolstoyan ideas. It involves peacefully refusing to comply with unjust laws, accepting suffering, and appealing to the conscience of the opponent.

/saptarshi/

The seven great sages (Kashyapa, Atri, Vashishtha, Vishwamitra, Gautama, Jamadagni, Bharadvaja) revered in Hindu tradition for their wisdom and authorship of Vedic hymns. They symbolise the preservation of cosmic knowledge across epochs.

/suvarnayugam/

A period of great prosperity, cultural achievement, and scientific advancement. The Gupta period (4th-6th century CE) is often called India's Golden Age, during which mathematics (Aryabhata), astronomy, literature (Kalidasa), and medicine flourished.

/lokaseva/

Service to the people or community. In ancient Indian philosophy, the king's duty (Rajadharma) included protecting subjects, maintaining justice, and promoting welfare. In modern India, the civil services (IAS, IPS, IFS) embody the ideal of Lokaseva.

/tattvam/

सर्वस्य मूलभूतं यथार्थं स्वरूपम्।

essence, reality, truth

/ātman/

शरीरादन्यः नित्यः चेतनः पुरुषः।

self, soul, individual consciousness

/brahman/

सर्वव्यापी निर्गुणः परमः सत्-चित्-आनन्दस्वरूपः।

the ultimate reality, universal consciousness

/māyā/

यया जगत् सत्यवत् प्रतीयते सा ब्रह्मशक्तिः।

illusion, cosmic illusion, magical power

/mokṣaḥ/

जन्ममृत्युचक्रात् आत्यन्तिकी मुक्तिः।

liberation, spiritual emancipation

/cetanā/

जीवस्य बोधात्मकं तत्त्वं यत् अनुभवं करोति।

consciousness, awareness, sentience

/jñānam/

यथार्थबोधः; विशेषतः आत्मतत्त्वस्य अवबोधः।

knowledge, wisdom, understanding

/vivekaḥ/

सत्यासत्ययोः नित्यानित्ययोः च भेदज्ञानम्।

discrimination, discernment, right judgment

/dharmaḥ/

यः समाजं विश्वं च धारयति सः धर्मः।

righteousness, duty, cosmic order

/karma/

कृतानां कर्मणां फलम् यत् भविष्यति तत् कर्म।

action, deed, law of cause and effect

/kāvyam/

शब्दार्थसहितं सौन्दर्यपूर्णं साहित्यकृतिः।

poetry, literary composition

/ślokaḥ/

चतुष्पादं छन्दोबद्धं पद्यम्।

verse, hymn, metrical stanza

/chandaḥ/

काव्ये पद्यस्य अक्षरगणनाधारितं नियमबद्धं रूपम्।

metre, prosody, Vedic hymn

/alaṅkāraḥ/

काव्यशोभाकरणार्थं प्रयुज्यमानः शब्दार्थयोः विशेषः।

figure of speech, ornament, embellishment

/rasaḥ/

काव्यनाट्यादिषु श्रोतुः हृदये अनुभूयमानः भावविशेषः।

aesthetic sentiment, emotion, flavour

/nāṭakam/

पात्रैः अभिनीयमानं कथावस्तुयुक्तं साहित्यरूपम्।

drama, play, theatrical performance

/mahākāvyam/

नायकस्य चरित्रमाश्रितं दीर्घं सर्गबद्धं काव्यम्।

epic poem, great literary composition

/gītam/

रागतालयुक्तं स्वरबद्धं पद्यम्।

song, lyric poem, musical composition

/gaṇitam/

सङ्ख्यानां गणनाम् आश्रितं शास्त्रम्।

mathematics, calculation, arithmetic

/jyotiṣam/

नक्षत्रग्रहाणां गतिगणनविज्ञानम्।

astronomy, astrology, the science of light

/āyurvedaḥ/

आयुषः वेदः — जीवनस्य आरोग्यस्य च शास्त्रम्।

science of life, traditional Indian medicine

/vyākaraṇam/

शब्दानां शुद्धप्रयोगनियमान् प्रतिपादयत् शास्त्रम्।

grammar, linguistic analysis

/tarkaśāstram/

युक्तिसंगतेन विचारेण सत्यासत्यनिर्णयस्य शास्त्रम्।

logic, science of reasoning

/rasāyanam/

धातुपरिवर्तनं औषधनिर्माणं च अधिकृत्य प्रचलितं शास्त्रम्।

chemistry, alchemical science, elixir

/saṅgītam/

गीतं वाद्यं तथा नृत्यं त्रयं संगीतमुच्यते।

music, vocal and instrumental performance

/nṛtyam/

अङ्गसञ्चालनेन भावाभिव्यक्तिपूर्णः कलात्मकः अभिनयः।

dance, classical dance performance

/citrakala/

वर्णैः रेखाभिः च पटले रूपाणां निर्माणकला।

painting, the art of drawing and painting

/śilpakala/

पाषाणधातुकाष्ठादेः त्रिआयामरूपनिर्माणकला।

sculpture, craft, fine arts

/nāṭyaśāstram/

भरतमुनिप्रणीतं नाटकनृत्यसंगीताद्याः विवेचयत् शास्त्रग्रन्थः।

treatise on dramatic arts, science of theatre

/ārogyam/

रोगराहित्यं शरीरमनसोः सम्यक् स्थितिः।

health, well-being, freedom from disease

/oṣadham/

रोगनिवारणार्थं प्रयुज्यमानं औषधम्।

medicine, herb

/vaidyaḥ/

आयुर्वेदज्ञः चिकित्सकः।

physician, doctor

/cikitsā/

रोगस्य उपचारः।

treatment, medical care

/yogaḥ/

मनसः शरीरस्य च संयोगः साधना च।

yoga, union, discipline

/saṃskṛtiḥ/

जनसमूहस्य आचारविचारकलादीनां समग्रता।

culture, civilisation

/utsavaḥ/

आनन्दपूर्णः सार्वजनिकः समारोहः।

festival, celebration

/saṃskāraḥ/

जीवने विशिष्टे काले कृत्यमानः पवित्रः विधिः।

rite of passage, refinement

/ācāraḥ/

धर्मसम्मतः व्यवहारः।

conduct, custom, practice

/paramparā/

पीढ़ीपरम्परया प्रवाहमाणः आचारः।

tradition, lineage

/vanam/

वृक्षसमूहेन आच्छादिता भूमिः।

forest, woodland

/nadī/

सागरं प्रति प्रवाहमाणं जलप्रवाहिणी।

river

/parvataḥ/

भूमेः उच्चतमः स्थिरः भागः।

mountain

/ākāśaḥ/

ऊर्ध्वे दृश्यमानः नीलः अनन्तः विस्तारः।

sky, space, ether

/jalam/

सर्वजीवनस्य आधारभूतः पारदर्शी द्रवः।

water

/vidyā/

अध्ययनेन प्राप्तं ज्ञानम्।

knowledge, learning

/guruḥ/

शिष्यान् ज्ञानं पाठयन् आचार्यः।

teacher, preceptor

/śiṣyaḥ/

गुरोः समीपे विद्याभ्यासं कुर्वाणः छात्रः।

disciple, student

/granthaḥ/

लिखितः शास्त्रीयः अथवा पवित्रः पुस्तकः।

book, scripture, text

/bhāṣā/

मनुष्याणां परस्परं संवादार्थं प्रयुज्यमाना वाक्प्रणाली।

language, speech

/śabdaḥ/

अर्थबोधकः वर्णसमूहः।

word, sound

/arthaḥ/

शब्देन बोध्यमानः विषयः।

meaning, purpose

/samājaḥ/

एकत्र जीवन्तः मनुष्याणां समूहः।

society, community

/kulam/

एकस्य पूर्वजात् उत्पन्नः परिवारसमूहः।

family, clan, lineage

/janaḥ/

मनुष्यः; बहुवचने जनसामान्यः।

person, people, folk

/arthaḥ/

धनं सम्पत्तिः च; पुरुषार्थेषु एकः।

wealth, material prosperity

/vyāpāraḥ/

क्रयविक्रयमाध्यमेन धनार्जनस्य कार्यम्।

trade, commerce, business

/itihāsaḥ/

अतीतस्य घटनानां क्रमबद्धः वृत्तान्तः।

history, epic narrative

/purāṇam/

प्राचीनकथाः पुराणानि मिथकानि च धारयन् शास्त्रः।

ancient lore, Purana

/deśaḥ/

विशिष्टसीमाभिः परिबद्धा भूमिः।

country, region, land

/rājyam/

राज्ञः शासनाधीनः प्रदेशः; शासनव्यवस्था।

kingdom, state, sovereignty